Transistors, the building blocks of modern electronics, are typically made of silicon. Because it’s a semiconductor, this material can control the flow of electricity in a circuit. But silicon has fundamental physical limits that restrict how compact and energy-efficient a transistor can be.

MIT researchers have now replaced silicon with a magnetic semiconductor, creating a magnetic transistor that could enable smaller, faster, and more energy-efficient circuits. The material’s magnetism strongly influences its electronic behavior, leading to more efficient control of the flow of electricity. 

The team used a novel magnetic material and an optimization process that reduces the material’s defects, which boosts the transistor’s performance.

The material’s unique magnetic properties also allow for transistors with built-in memory, which would simplify circuit design and unlock new applications for high-performance electronics.

“People have known about magnets for thousands of years, but there are very limited ways to incorporate magnetism into electronics. We have shown a new way to efficiently utilize magnetism that opens up a lot of possibilities for future applications and research,” says Chung-Tao Chou, an MIT graduate student in the departments of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science (EECS) and Physics, and co-lead author of a paper on this advance.

Chou is joined on the paper by co-lead author Eugene Park, a graduate student in the Department of Materials Science and Engineering (DMSE); Julian Klein, a DMSE research scientist; Josep Ingla-Aynes, a postdoc in the MIT Plasma Science and Fusion Center; Jagadeesh S. Moodera, a senior research scientist in the Department of Physics; and senior authors Frances Ross, TDK Professor in DMSE; and Luqiao Liu, an associate professor in EECS, and a member of the Research Laboratory of Electronics; as well as others at the University of Chemistry and Technology in Prague. The paper appears today in Physical Review Letters.

Overcoming the limits

In an electronic device, silicon semiconductor transistors act like tiny light switches that turn a circuit on and off, or amplify weak signals in a communication system. They do this using a small input voltage.

But a fundamental physical limit of silicon semiconductors prevents a transistor from operating below a certain voltage, which hinders its energy efficiency.

To make more efficient electronics, researchers have spent decades working toward magnetic transistors that utilize electron spin to control the flow of electricity. Electron spin is a fundamental property that enables electrons to behave like tiny magnets.

So far, scientists have mostly been limited to using certain magnetic materials. These lack the favorable electronic properties of semiconductors, constraining device performance.

“In this work, we combine magnetism and semiconductor physics to realize useful spintronic devices,” Liu says.

The researchers replace the silicon in the surface layer of a transistor with chromium sulfur bromide, a two-dimensional material that acts as a magnetic semiconductor.

Due to the material’s structure, researchers can switch between two magnetic states very cleanly. This makes it ideal for use in a transistor that smoothly switches between “on” and “off.”

“One of the biggest challenges we faced was finding the right material. We tried many other materials that didn’t work,” Chou says.

They discovered that changing these magnetic states modifies the material’s electronic properties, enabling low-energy operation. And unlike many other 2D materials, chromium sulfur bromide remains stable in air.

To make a transistor, the researchers pattern electrodes onto a silicon substrate, then carefully align and transfer the 2D material on top. They use tape to pick up a tiny piece of material, only a few tens of nanometers thick, and place it onto the substrate.

“A lot of researchers will use solvents or glue to do the transfer, but transistors require a very clean surface. We eliminate all those risks by simplifying this step,” Chou says.

Leveraging magnetism

This lack of contamination enables their device to outperform existing magnetic transistors. Most others can only create a weak magnetic effect, changing the flow of current by a few percent or less. Their new transistor can switch or amplify the electric current by a factor of 10.

They use an external magnetic field to change the magnetic state of the material, switching the transistor using significantly less energy than would usually be required.

The material also allows them to control the magnetic states with electric current. This is important because engineers cannot apply magnetic fields to individual transistors in an electronic device. They need to control each one electrically.

The material’s magnetic properties could also enable transistors with built-in memory, simplifying the design of logic or memory circuits.

A typical memory device has a magnetic cell to store information and a transistor to read it out. Their method can combine both into one magnetic transistor.

“Now, not only are transistors turning on and off, they are also remembering information. And because we can switch the transistor with greater magnitude, the signal is much stronger so we can read out the information faster, and in a much more reliable way,” Liu says.

Building on this demonstration, the researchers plan to further study the use of electrical current to control the device. They are also working to make their method scalable so they can fabricate arrays of transistors.

This research was supported, in part, by the Semiconductor Research Corporation, the U.S. Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), the U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF), the U.S. Department of Energy, the U.S. Army Research Office, and the Czech Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sports. The work was partially carried out at the MIT.nano facilities.

An appeals court ruling unfreezing the Greenhouse Gas Reduction Fund could be the big break for efforts to bring clean energy to communities around the country — or just the latest turn of the legal screw.

The three wildfires near Spokane have so far burned far fewer acres than other ongoing Washington fires. But they have wrought outsize destruction.

A bipartisan group of lawmakers discussed ways of advancing a host of legislation.

The Government Accountability Office says the disaster agency is at risk of failure and operates "in uncertainty and confusion."

The shark is far more common in warmer, southern waters such as the Caribbean Sea.

The Danube’s record-low water levels also have forced power plants to the brink of shutting down.

“The goal is for the day to end better than it started,” said the head of the Greek Firefighters Association.

The cleared land was later converted into pasture for commercial use, investigators said.

This is disturbing:

…a team of security researchers at UC San Diego, who found that a model of aftermarket car alarm known as the KARR Security System, installed in more than 2 million vehicles across the US by their estimate, can let any hacker within Bluetooth range send radio commands to silently unlock the car at will, turn off its alarm, honk the car’s horn or flash its lights, or even disable its ignition and leave a driver stranded.

Imagine a bottle of hazardous chemicals sitting on a laboratory shelf that changes its appearance to alert scientists that its lid is not properly secured, potentially preventing a dangerous spill.

A new 3D-printing system created by MIT researchers enables users to produce interactive objects like this chemical bottle, which change their appearance when they are pressed, slid, or turned, without the use of any internal electronics. 

Their system simplifies the process of designing and fabricating 3D objects with mechanically switchable surface appearances, enabling individuals without technical expertise to quickly generate dynamic everyday objects.

The design and fabrication system combines specially arranged optical layers with built-in mechanical parts so a single object can display different images or patterns. The resulting objects change appearance based on user interactions like screwing on a lid or flipping a switch, and they can be manufactured in one pass on a multimaterial 3D printer.

The system can be used to fabricate a range of interactive objects that don’t require fragile electronic circuits, such as adaptable warning signs that could withstand foul weather or dynamic packaging that alerts users if fasteners came loose during shipping. 

The end-to-end system could also streamline rapid prototyping of adaptable objects for artistic, architectural, and engineering applications.

“With our system, an object can tell you whether you are using it properly, without the need for sensors or any complicated electronics. The interactive display is mechanical, so you can create a self-contained, multistate, interactive device that a user can control very intuitively,” says Yunyi Zhu, a graduate student in the MIT Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science (EECS) and lead author of a paper on this platform.

Her co-authors include Dingning Cao, an MIT undergraduate; Jeremy Mrzyglocki, a graduate student at the Technical University of Munich; Stefanie Mueller, an associate professor in EECS and the Department of Mechanical Engineering at MIT and a member of the Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (CSAIL); and Narjes Pourjafarian, a postdoc at Northeastern University. The research will be presented at the ACM Symposium on User Interface Software and Technology.

Mechanically switchable surfaces

Many interactive products rely on screens and electronics to change their appearance. But if these dynamic objects are exposed to water or harsh chemicals, or are squished, twisted, or pressed with great force, the fragile electronics could be damaged.

On the other hand, conventional methods that use surface optics to change an object’s appearance without electronics typically utilize static labels like stickers or curved lenses to create different visual effects based on where the user is looking, limiting interactivity.

To simplify the process of making dynamic, interactive objects that don’t require electronics, the MIT researchers developed a system that automatically converts a user’s design into a 3D printer-ready model of an object with a mechanically switchable surface appearance.   

Their design, ShiftLens, creates switchable appearances by combining two optical layers on an object’s surface. It places a layer of special lenses over an underlying, patterned backplane. 

The object displays different visual states based on the motion between the two layers. 

The lens layer contains an array of tiny lenticular lenses, curved lenses which steer light differently depending on the viewing angle of the user. The pattern layer contains strips of images that correspond to multiple appearances of the object surface.

When the user shifts the lens layer, different parts of the backplane come into view. The lenses magnify these parts of the backplane image, changing the surface appearance.

“The biggest challenge in this project was to make sure all moving parts align. We need to make sure that the optical effect, mechanical linkages, and computational graphics align with one another,” Zhu says.

A straightforward system

To simplify the design process, the researchers created a user-friendly tool that does all this work behind the scenes. 

It automatically generates a ShiftLens structure based on a few inputs, including images of the visual states the user wants to achieve and the desired shape and curves of the object.

“Another challenge is to communicate to users who are not familiar with optics or mechanical structures and let them specify and achieve what they have in mind,” she says.

The researchers thought carefully about how to communicate the limitations of the ShiftLens design tool to the user. For instance, ShiftLens is not compatible with all objects, since it requires a shifting motion to enable interaction between the two layers.

Users can either incorporate a ShiftLens into the design of an object that has this type of interaction built-in, like the rotation of a lipstick tube, or integrate an actuation mechanism like a switch, knob, or roller. 

“With ShiftLens, users can control what an object looks like while they are using it,” she says.

The researchers showcased how someone might use ShiftLens by fabricating a range of interactive objects.

In one experiment, they created a chemical bottle that turns green and displays a check mark when the cap is securely tightened, but turns red and displays an exclamation mark when it is loose. For another demonstration, they fabricated a tic-tac-toe game with squares that can display a red X, a blue O, or no letter, depending on which direction a user turns a knob.

While the ShiftLens tool is designed to simplify the fabrication process for makers, the techniques could be scaled up for commercial and industrial applications, Zhu says. For instance, it could be used to design piping that can change its appearance to identify a damaged connection that is causing a leak.

“The leaking sink in my apartment would be a lot easier to fix if it could tell me where the leak was coming from,” Zhu adds.

The researchers want to explore additional applications in future work. They also plan to develop an algorithm that can generate a ShiftLens structure with fewer user inputs, simplifying the design process. In addition, they plan to enhance the design tool so users can incorporate a wider variety of actuation mechanisms.

The Senate Commerce Committee will vote this week on several censorious and privacy invasive bills: KOSA, the SCREEN Act, Youth AI Privacy Act, and CHATBOT Act. While we appreciate that the Committee is taking the time to look at these bills separately, it’s still impossible to ignore the message Congress is sending to the world: Age-gate the internet and block young people from speaking and accessing lawful speech online. Or else. 

Take action

Tell Congress: don't age-gate the internet

Each of these bills claims to be trying to protect children and teenagers from dangerous situations on and offline—certainly a worthy goal. But the proposed solutions in these bills are unlikely to make children and teenagers safer at all. Rather, they would create sweeping new privacy and data security problems, and force platforms to adopt unconstitutional restrictions on the content they host, for both adults and teenagers. 

There is a better way. Instead of considering these bills, the Senate Commerce Committee should be focusing on a national consumer privacy bill that would protect ALL internet users, or on banning behavioral advertising that tracks us across the web—again, for users of all ages. 

But the bills being considered this week move in the other direction—more information being collected, more surveillance, and less privacy for internet users of all ages. 

Take action

help eff oppose these bills

EFF sent a letter to the Committee with our concerns about these bills. We look forward to continuing to work with them to find a way forward that protects all users. 

The Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals has endorsed a commonsense technical interpretation of the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act (CFAA), a law not usually given to such interpretation. Amazon had sued Perplexity AI to try to shut down its Comet browser, claiming the browser’s optional agentic AI “Assistant” that can browse websites like Amazon for comparison shopping purposes, violated the CFAA because Amazon did not “authorize” Perplexity to access Amazon users’ accounts. Rejecting that theory, the Ninth Circuit held that Perplexity was unlikely to be liable because users operate the tool, not Perplexity.

That’s the right conclusion, as both a legal and technical matter. As we explained to the court in our amicus brief, the CFAA requires unauthorized “access,” and Perplexity itself does not access Amazon’s servers—users of the Comet browser do. The court agreed, noting that EFF’s explanation “articulates the nature of the system most clearly.”

The court noted that agentic AI may present novel legal issues, and there is “little to no existing caselaw directly dealing with how to ascribe responsibility for AI agents like the Assistant, let alone caselaw specifically dealing with agentic AI in the CFAA context.” Ultimately, though, thorny questions of AI “intent” were irrelevant to this case, because the Assistant “is a tool, not a person for statutory purposes.” And, the court concluded, it is a tool operated by users, not Perplexity. Even where Perplexity received information from users about their Amazon accounts and used this information to instruct the Assistant, the court found that that did not constitute the sort of control needed to find access by Perplexity. As the court noted, Amazon might have other viable claims against Perplexity, but invoking the CFAA was both legally baseless and bad policy that “could expose users themselves to criminal liability. 

This is a gratifying decision because all too often, big players use the CFAA to bully upstarts and innovators who offer potentially helpful user tools. When we counsel clients as part of EFF’s Coders Rights Project, CFAA risk is a frequent topic of conversation, even for developers who merely create tools that allow others to access websites in new or different ways. We’ve stood up for these creators before, and we’ll do it again, but it’s helpful to have back up from one of the most influential appellate courts in the country.

Related Cases: Facebook v. Power Ventures

The end of World War II marked a turning point for global empires; weakened by years of conflict, European nations could no longer hold onto their colonies. A wave of independence followed. This shift was fueled by local anti-colonial activists, the heavy economic toll of the war, and the strategic interests of the new global superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union. Yet these transformations also raised an important question: How would these developing nations approach economic independence?

In his latest book, “Constructing Economic Nationalisms in Brazil and India” (Cambridge University Press, 2026), MIT Department of Urban Studies and Planning (DUSP) Associate Professor Jason Jackson tracks how two of these emerging nations developed different brands of economic nationalism from the late 1800s through the early post-World War II era.

The timing of the book is prescient. The rise of globalization in the 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s led many observers to declare nationalism a relic of the past. Yet economic nationalism has returned with a vengeance over the past few years, making clear the importance of understanding this phenomenon in its historical and contemporary forms. 

Although the idea of economic nationalism is commonly used, it is often misleadingly defined as “anti-foreign,” says Jackson. Instead, Jackson’s research provides a more nuanced definition of how Brazil and India regulated foreign investment after World War II to advance their standing in the industrialized world.

“Brazil and India typically come to mind if one were to ask which countries in Latin America or Asia pursued a lot of nationalist policies, but their approaches to economic nationalism manifested in very different ways,” says Jackson. 

The two countries offer compelling comparisons of how economic policies and development strategies can diverge. Especially during the postwar era, both countries were driven to boost national income and secure economic sovereignty, and both aggressively pursued rapid industrialization. In addition to these shared goals, both countries faced the same basic hurdles: limited access to finance and technology that were deemed essential to building a modern industrial nation.

Jackson argues that it was Brazil’s and India’s colonial past and early independence experiences that formed their diverse approaches to economic growth. He selected two industries — oil and automobiles — to contrast their foreign direct investment policies. By focusing on the colonial experience, he explains how economic policies were born from a mix of cultural identity and material reality.

Jackson’s research relies on primary archival materials, including diplomatic correspondence between American officials in both countries and the U.S. Department of State. Because these officials served as boots-on-the-ground observers and intermediaries, their reports offer unique insights into the motivations of local business and government elites and the strategic concerns of American multinational firms.

“Nationalism manifested in very different ways in both places,” says Jackson. “In Brazil, I found that what was really salient and drove the parameters of economic nationalism was tied to the idea of protecting their natural resources. There was a strong belief that Brazil was very resource-rich and that outsiders — from neighboring countries to global powers — wanted its resources.”

This view was exemplified by oil. The link between anti-colonialism and oil in Brazil dates to the 19th century, beginning with the struggle between landed elites and the imperial court over subsoil property rights. By 1923, this sentiment was so strong that a law was proposed to ban oil concessions to foreigners. Notably, this law occurred before any oil had even been discovered.

By contrast, Brazilians were much less concerned about foreign ownership and control of other areas of industrial production such as manufacturing. To establish their automobile industry, they actively encouraged foreign firms to enter Brazil and to be the dominant partner in joint ventures, with local companies with Brazilian firms playing a more supportive, and often explicitly subordinate, role.

In India, the policies for the development of the petroleum sector and automobile manufacturing were completely reversed. 

Long before the British had arrived in India or the Industrial Revolution began, India was a global leader in textiles. Their rich artisanal history is defined by centuries-old expertise in weaving and dyeing — skills that made Indian fabrics highly sought-after for generations. 

Jackson argues that Indian economic nationalists strongly believed that British “free trade” economic policies toward the Indian colony decimated this age-old industry. “Free trade,” says Jackson, “derailed India from its natural path towards industrialization from the perspective of Indian nationalists. They saw the British as having enforced a trading system that brought in cheap manufactured goods from industrial sites such as Lancashire and Manchester in North West England and undermined artisanal production in India. In fact, many nationalists thought India would have ‘naturally’ had its own industrial revolution had the British never arrived.” 

After winning independence, Indian nationalist elites were determined to address this colonial-era policy structure that had favored British capital. With a “manufacturing” mindset to grow its economic base, foreign automobile firms were restricted from having majority ownership or managerial control of companies in the emerging automobile industry in India. In fact, General Motors, which had been operating in India since the 1920s, was forced out of India in the post-war years, both for their failure to do “real” manufacturing (GM simply imported “complete knock-down kits” that were easily assembled with hand tools, rather than doing “real” manufacturing in the country) and because the government was intent on allowing domestic firms to flourish. 

With oil production, however, Indians did not harbor concerns of foreign control or foreign multinationals taking the lead in extracting India’s petroleum. Despite explicitly recognizing oil multinationals as potential instruments of neo-imperial control, they allowed British and American oil companies to establish dominant positions. 

For Jackson, the biggest takeaway from comparing these two countries and the directions they took to achieve economic independence is that to understand contemporary geopolitics, it's “crucially important” to understand nationalism.

“Up until recently, many scholars thought that economic nationalism was a thing of the past. Yet we now live in a world where it’s fairly undeniable that nationalism is a force,” says Jackson. “In this context, there’s a tension between those that want to retain the kind of liberal, global international order of a few years ago, while there are others pushing for a global economy that is more nationally centered and regionally organized. We see this kind of battle playing out in a variety of ways between the European Union, Russia, China, and the United States.

“If you want to understand today’s complex and ever-shifting geopolitical environment, particularly from the perspective of people in other parts of the world, it’s useful to be able to understand how they interpret the actions of the current global powers. One of the things we can take directly from this book is that we can understand how different kinds of nationalisms shape the ways in which people make sense of not just historical developments or things that have happened in the past, but contemporary geopolitical developments. Together, these help us to assess the present and to imagine possible futures.” 

When Nicholas de Monchaux became head of the Department of Architecture at the School of Architecture and Planning (SA+P) in 2020, he stepped into an unusual set of leadership conditions. He had been due to start in July 2020. Instead, a springtime visit to Cambridge, Massachusetts, coincided with the first Covid-19 lockdowns, and he found himself taking on the role earlier than planned — several months before faculty, students, and staff were able to gather in the same room.

As he concludes his tenure as head of the department before becoming dean of the University of California at Berkeley’s College of Environmental Design, de Monchaux reflects on a period of disruption that became an opportunity to strengthen the department’s infrastructure and advance new models for architectural education and research: “One of the key accomplishments of my time as head of the department has involved finding ways to teach one of MIT’s most physical and collaborative subjects remotely, while keeping the community together and rebuilding our studio culture once we were back on campus,” he says. 

Engaging complexity

The questions that have motivated de Monchaux’s research became central to the challenge of leading the department. As an architect and design theorist, his work draws on the science of adaptive complex systems to examine how design can shape resilient forms of organization under changing conditions.

His first book, “Spacesuit: Fashioning Apollo,” argues that the design of the Apollo spacesuit succeeded through continual adaptation across materials, manufacturing practices, and institutional networks, rather than through engineering optimization alone. His subsequent book, “Local Code: 3,659 Proposals About Data, Design, and the Nature of Cities,” shifts this inquiry from the body to the city, using geospatial data to show how thousands of marginal city-owned vacant lots could collectively support new forms of ecological and civic infrastructure, replacing top-down master planning with coordinated, site-specific interventions. If the impacts of the pandemic could be characterized as an emergent complex system at the scale of the body, the city, the planet — then leadership could be framed as a design problem.

De Monchaux’s understanding of design in relation to complexity science is influenced by his long-standing engagement with the Santa Fe Institute, where he serves as external faculty alongside researchers in the natural sciences, social sciences, and humanities. His instinct for combining multiple forms of knowledge can be traced back to MIT — he spent formative years here, where his father, John de Monchaux, served as dean of SA+P from 1981 to 1992. “I was shaped by the ethos of curiosity at MIT,” he says. “Not just when it comes to questions of science and technology, but also those of art, design, and culture.”

Paradox and works in progress

That way of thinking becomes especially relevant in the context of climate change. According to the U.N. Environment Program, the construction and operation of buildings account for almost 40 percent of global greenhouse gas emissions, an even larger share when urbanization, transportation, and the wider built environment are taken into account. For architects, this presents a paradox: The systems they work within have contributed substantially to the problems they now seek to solve.

“Over the past six years, our department has focused on two fundamental climate-related challenges,” says de Monchaux. “One is how to build differently through new approaches to circularity and material reuse. The other is how to make our social, cultural, and physical systems more resilient.”

Those priorities find expression in the Climate Studios, a research and teaching initiative nestled under the Option Studios (course number 4.154) that brings together faculty members — including architects, engineers, and historians — to collaborate with students on impact-driven research projects related to climate across multiple years of integrated research and pedagogy. 

“The studios reorganize teaching in the department because students aren’t just working on speculative exercises, they’re working on real issues,” says de Monchaux. “Likewise, the studios reorganize research by allowing faculty to benefit from the boundless energy and imagination of our design students.”

The Climate Studios are part of a wider constellation of climate action initiatives in collaboration with the MIT Department of Urban Studies and Planning (DUSP). One example is a collaboration with DUSP and outgoing Department Head Chris Zegras, toward creating an MIT Civilian Climate Corps. Including seminars and workshops on community-focused design for MIT and its neighbors, and student-staffed work on circular material use, the initiative served as an incubator for the MIT Farm. Other projects at different stages of development were presented in the exhibition “Climate Work: Un/Worlding the Planet,” the department’s exhibition at the 2025 Venice Architecture Biennale, curated by de Monchaux alongside incoming department head Ana Miljački and exhibition designer Calvin Zhong ’18, MA ’24, MCP ’24. The exhibition embodied its own principles of circularity: The modular display tables, fabricated in Venice, were designed for reuse, and have since been installed as worktables in the department’s forthcoming home, the Metropolitan Storage Warehouse (the Met) — a space designed, like the exhibition, to invite continual experimentation. 

Building connections

The transformation of the Met has provided another opportunity for de Monchaux to think about architecture as a process of adaptation and collaboration. Having previously worked at Diller Scofidio + Renfro, the architecture firm engaged for the renovation project, he brought a unique perspective to the process, acting as “a translator between two different languages.” Recognizing the shared culture of experimentation that linked the architecture firm and the department, he advocated for a more radical approach to the renovation, pushing the boundaries of what might be expected from an institutional building. 

“It was important that the building remain open-ended and a little raw, because there’s a long tradition at MIT of students and faculty shaping their own studios and spaces,” he explains.

While de Monchaux is proud of the initiatives that took shape during his tenure, as a scholar of complex systems he knows better than to claim ownership over any single project. He describes both architecture and administration as acts of organization and rearrangement, evolving the work of predecessors and making way for those who follow.

One of the clearest examples is the department’s collaboration with Tuskegee University, which will be carried forward by Miljački. The Robert R. Taylor Project builds on a relationship dating back to 1893, when MIT’s first Black graduate and the nation’s first professionally trained Black architect left Cambridge to design much of Tuskegee’s campus, playing an influential role in defining the university’s approach to architectural education. De Monchaux worked closely with Kwesi Daniels, head of architecture at Tuskegee, to establish an exchange program connecting students and faculty through complementary forms of expertise, from the study of historic preservation at Tuskegee to digital fabrication and entrepreneurship at MIT. 

“A relationship that was purely symbolic has now become part of the fabric of the two institutions, expanding access to different programs and ways of teaching,” says de Monchaux. 

Invisible infrastructure 

Less visible, but equally consequential, is the impact of strengthening the department’s underlying social and physical infrastructure. During de Monchaux’s tenure, this has included expanding student governance and community forums, increasing minimum fellowship support for MArch graduate students from 50 to 90 percent of tuition, earning accreditation for the department’s professional degree in architecture, and ensuring that every MArch student has access to a department-provided workstation in studio.

“What we’re really talking about is unlocking the latent curiosity and passion of every person in the department, providing the infrastructure that allows them to accomplish what they wouldn’t be able to do otherwise,” says de Monchaux. 

That statement resonates with an idea he put forth in a 2023 essay for MIT Technology Review, which argued for a return to the roots of the word “design.” Successful designers, he proposed, “reshape not just objects, but also the culture and institutions that create them.” And so, if leadership is a design problem, the goal is to create the conditions for continually new and productive outcomes. The infrastructures built during this period — physical, academic, and social — provide a strong foundation for the leadership of de Monchaux’s colleague and successor, “the incredibly capable and visionary Ana Miljački.”

Developers Must Beware of Ad Libraries that Betray Users’ Privacy

SAN FRANCISCO – Some software development kits (SDKs) provided by advertising companies to help developers monetize their apps are automatically feeding users’ location data into systems that location data brokers use to track people, an Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) report found. 

EFF began investigating the location-sharing practices of various advertising SDKs to better understand the pipeline from mobile apps to location data brokers. The probe revealed how such SDKs can facilitate and encourage location data sharing – without users’ knowledge or meaningful consent – through privacy-invasive defaults, financial incentives, and unclear documentation.    

“Defaults matter, not just for users, but for app developers as well. If app developers don’t pay close attention to the location-sharing settings of their advertising tools, they could inadvertently expose users’ location information,” EFF Staff Technologist Lena Cohen said. “Users can take extra steps to defend their location privacy, but they shouldn’t have to. Developers, regulators, and legislators must act to stop apps from leaking users’ location to advertising companies and data brokers.” 

Cohen and EFF Senior Staff Technologist Bill Budington reviewed the public developer documentation of dozens of widely used advertising SDKs to identify how they handle and communicate with developers about location data.  

In their analysis, they highlighted four advertising SDKs that collect and share a user's location by default for ad targeting whenever the user has given the app location permissions: InMobi, BidMachine, Verve’s HyBid, and Huawei’s Petal Ads. But EFF’s focus on these four does not mean that other SDKs adequately protect location data or that developers never choose to share location data when it’s not the default. In fact, advertising SDKs not discussed in this investigation have been criticized and sued for collecting location data without valid user consent.  

“When developers let advertising SDKs collect location data, they’re putting users at risk of more than just creepy ads,” Budington said. “Location information sourced from the advertising industry has been used for ICE investigations, global spy tools, outing a gay priest, tracking union organizers, and tracking US military personnel. Developers have a responsibility to protect their users’ from these harms, regardless of advertising SDKs’ default settings.” 

For the EFF report: https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2026/07/developers-beware-ad-libraries-betray-your-users-location-privacy

For more on location data brokers: https://www.eff.org/issues/location-data-brokers 

For more on SDKs: https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2022/06/how-federal-government-buys-our-cell-phone-location-data   

Contact:  WilliamBudingtonSenior Staff Technologistbill@eff.org LenaCohenStaff Technologistlcohen@eff.org

Across mobile platforms, advertising companies provide developers with software development kits (SDKs) that make it easy to monetize their apps. But those same SDKs can automatically feed users’ location data into ad systems that location data brokers use to track people. Many developers may not even be aware of this privacy violation, let alone the users who are directly affected.

When developers let advertising SDKs collect location data, they’re putting users at risk of more than just creepy ads. Location information sourced from the advertising industry has been used for ICE investigations, global spy tools, outing a gay priest, tracking union organizers, and tracking US military personnel.

Defaults matter, not just for users, but for app developers as well.

An EFF investigation has identified several advertising SDKs that publicly acknowledge collecting and sharing users’ location by default when embedded in Android apps granted location permissions. Defaults matter, not just for users, but for app developers as well. If app developers don’t pay close attention to the location-sharing settings of their advertising tools, they could inadvertently expose users’ location information.

This report explains how advertising SDKs can facilitate and encourage location data sharing through privacy-invasive defaults, financial incentives, and unclear documentation.

Contents:

• Data Brokers Harvest Location Information From Advertising Systems
• How Advertising SDKs Leak Location Data
• EFF Identified Advertising SDKs That Share Location Data by Default
• InMobi Encourages Keeping Location Sharing Enabled By Highlighting Financial Incentives
• BidMachine Updates Previously Inaccurate Developer Documentation After EFF's Technical Analysis Observed Precise Location Data Collection
• Verve Emphasizes Consent More in its Play Store Language Than its Configuration Guide
• Huawei Highlights Financial Incentives for Location Data Sharing Before Showing Developers How to Opt Out
• Location Data Sharing Can Happen Without Users’ Knowledge or Meaningful Consent
• Location Privacy Issues Extend Beyond These Four SDKs
• Fighting Back Against AdTech Companies That Enable and Encourage Location Data Sharing
• Developers
• Regulators
• Legislators

Data Brokers Harvest Location Information From Advertising Systems

When an advertising SDK collects and shares location data, it becomes part of a larger ecosystem that can include advertisers, ad tech companies, and location data brokers. EFF began investigating the location-sharing practices of various advertising SDKs to better understand the pipeline from mobile apps to location data brokers.

Location data brokers sell information on the precise movements of billions of people without their knowledge or meaningful consent. This data is primarily sourced from apps on people’s phones. Some apps partner with data brokers directly, using data-broker-developed SDKs or server-to-server transfers to sell users’ location data. Other apps leak users’ location data through advertising SDKs serving behaviorally-targeted ads through “real-time bidding” (RTB). In the process of auctioning off ad space, ad tech companies can broadcast user data to thousands of potential advertisers. Location data brokers have participated in these auctions not just to bid on ad space, but to collect personal information contained in bid requests. 

Indiscriminate data sharing through RTB can lead app developers to unknowingly share their users’ location with data brokers. In 2025, a hack of location data broker Gravy Analytics revealed thousands of apps that may have been sources of its data. When journalists reached out to the app developers, many claimed they had no relationship with or knowledge of Gravy Analytics. To prevent location information from being shared with data brokers through RTB, developers must understand the location-sharing practices of their advertising SDKs.

How Advertising SDKs Leak Location Data

Developers don’t have to manually, or even intentionally, share location data for it to be broadcast through RTB auctions. Once a user grants an app permission to access their location, SDKs embedded in the app receive the same access—there are no SDK-specific location permissions. That means advertising SDKs can automatically collect users’ location data and share it in bid requests.

While apps and SDKs can estimate a users’ approximate location from their IP address without requesting any permissions, location permissions provide access to estimates that are more accurate and revealing. Precise location permissions give apps (and their embedded SDKs) access to location estimates within about 160 feet, but sometimes as accurate as 10 feet. Approximate location, a separate permissions level, gives apps access to a location estimate within about 1.2 square miles. 

Developers and advertising SDKs also have a financial incentive to share location data, since it can increase bid prices for an app’s ad space. While many advertising SDKs require developers to configure a setting before collecting and sharing users’ location data in ad requests, this is not always the case. EFF found several advertising SDKs who publicly acknowledge sharing users’ location data by default when embedded in apps granted location permissions. 

EFF Identified Advertising SDKs That Share Location Data by Default

EFF reviewed the public developer documentation of dozens of widely-used advertising SDKs to identify how they handle and communicate with developers about location data. In the following sections, we highlight four advertising SDKs who engage in a particularly egregious practice: collecting a user's location by default for ad targeting whenever a user has given an app location permissions. We reached out to each SDK company and the referenced app developers for comment. One company responded, and as detailed below, subsequently updated its documentation in response to our questions. Another company responded with clarifications to its developer documentation.

We chose to focus on SDKs with this privacy-invasive default because it increases the risk of developers leaking users’ location data without realizing it. Several studies have found that developers tend to stick to SDKs’ default settings. If an advertising SDK transmits location data by default, users' precise location can end up in advertising systems without the developer intentionally enabling location sharing. These SDKs have separate documentation pages that instruct developers to flag users covered by privacy laws like GDPR and COPPA for restricted data processing, but these modes are not the default. 

By analyzing how these four SDKs present their location sharing practices to developers, we hope to illustrate how the design and documentation of advertising SDKs can facilitate location data sharing at scale. Although the advertising SDKs we highlight are not the most prevalent SDKs used, they are embedded in thousands of apps and reach billions of users.

InMobi Encourages Keeping Location Sharing Enabled By Highlighting Financial Incentives

InMobi claims to reach “2B+ users across 150+ countries” and is the 10th most popular advertising SDK on Android (according to AppBrain and Appfigures at the time of publication). 

InMobi’s “Getting Started with Android SDK Integration” suggests that location sharing is enabled by default, stating “The InMobi SDK automatically forwards location signals when available.” InMobi provides developers with a setting to opt out, but explicitly recommends sharing location data. Developer documentation highlights the financial incentive for location sharing, stating “location-enriched impressions typically yield higher revenue.” 

[Observed on “Getting Started with Android SDK Integration,” 7/31/26]

Apps that use InMobi may not need location information to function or may only need access to approximate location information, but InMobi highly recommends that developers request precise location permissions “to enable accurate ad targeting.” They even encourage developers to request Wi-Fi network information permissions, which (when paired with precise location permissions) provide Wi-Fi access point identifiers that can also be used for location tracking.

[Observed on “Getting Started with Android SDK Integration,” 7/31/26]

InMobi has been accused of misleading developers over location sharing practices in the past: In 2016, they settled with the FTC over charges that they bypassed users’ location permissions for apps and tracked their precise locations through WiFi network data (Android now requires apps to request location permissions to access this WiFi data too).

BidMachine Updates Previously Inaccurate Developer Documentation After EFF's Technical Analysis Observed Precise Location Data Collection

BidMachine claims to reach over 600 million “direct SDK users.” 

BidMachine reveals that it collects location data by default on the “Advanced Settings” page of its Android SDK Integration guide, stating that the “SDK can automatically track user device location to serve better ads” as long as developers request location permissions for their app. Before publication, EFF reached out to BidMachine for comment, notifying them of our plan to highlight their Android SDK location sharing practices.  

[Observed on “Advanced Settings” on 7/31/26, before EFF asked BidMachine for comment]

After EFF reached out, BidMachine changed their documentation to clarify the practice, but not their default collection of location information once app-level permissions are granted. This updated section still fails to explain how developers can opt out of BidMachine location tracking, which is critical for app developers that require location access for core features but wish to prevent user data from being shared with advertisers.

[Observed on “Advanced Settings” on 8/3/26, after EFF asked BidMachine for comment]

Before EFF reached out, BidMachine’s “App Privacy Details On Google Play” page had stated that they only collected coarse location data and precise location data was “not collected.” However, our technical analysis of two apps, which Exodus Privacy determined include the BidMachine SDK, contradicted this claim: Network requests from the apps QR Scanner and GPS Speedometer to a BidMachine domain include precise location coordinates.

[Observed on “App Privacy Details On Google Play” on 7/31/26, before EFF asked BidMachine for comment]

After EFF reached out, BidMachine also corrected its documentation to make it clear precise location is collected by the SDK whenever the app-level permission is granted:

[Observed on “App Privacy Details On Google Play” on 8/3/26, after EFF asked BidMachine for comment]

com.appswing.qr.barcodescanner.barcodereader_bidmachine.flows

com.ktwapps.speedometer_bidmachine.flows

In response to our request for comment, BidMachine stated that it wasn't possible for them to get location information “unless the user has granted the app the relevant permission through the operating system.” They also stated that“publishers are responsible for configuring their apps' permission and consent flows.”

Verve Emphasizes Consent More in its Play Store Language Than its Configuration Guide 

Verve has claimed its HyBid SDK reaches “over 1.5 billion users across more than 10,000 apps worldwide.” 

Verve’s configuration guide for its HyBid Android SDK (formerly called Pubnative HyBid) makes clear that location tracking is “enabled by default,” stating, “If the user has given location permissions, HyBid SDK will use the available user location to provide better targeted ads.” 

[Observed on “HyBid Android SDK - HyBid Configuration,” 7/31/26]  

Verve’s guidance for data disclosure to the Google Play Store tells a more careful story. Despite the fact that location tracking is enabled by default, the Google Play Data Safety Guidance states that the SDK “does not collect or attempt to collect [location] information independently.”

[Observed on “Google Play Data Safety Guidance,” 7/31/26]  

It also emphasizes user consent, claiming the SDK will only collect location data “if the publishers allows its app to collect location data from users after obtaining user’s explicit consent to such data collection” (emphasis added). The configuration guide lacks recommendations or instructions for obtaining user consent to share location data with Verve, beyond app-level access. Instead, the configuration guide highlights the financial incentives for developers to add location permissions to their app.

[Observed on “HyBid Android SDK - HyBid Configuration,” 7/31/26]  

When reached for comment, Verve clarified that “in its current Android implementation, the SDK reads the cached network-provider location and does not use the GPS data of the end user's device. Furthermore, any geolocation data is coarsened prior to processing, ensuring that location is limited to an accuracy radius of no less than 1,850 feet.” It also said that it contractually requires apps to comply with data protection laws. 

To Verve’s credit, the HyBid SDK is open source, so careful developers can check the code instead of relying on documentation alone. HyBid’s open-source code shows that latitude and longitude coordinates are rounded to two decimal places, and that it does only collect and share network-derived location data, confirming the statement the company sent to us. If an app has precise location permissions, networked-derived location data rounded to two decimal places could be accurate within approximately 0.5 square miles, which is still more precise than the 1.2 square miles typically revealed with Android’s approximate location permission. But even coarse location data, especially when collected repeatedly over time, can reveal movements that should remain private by default.

Verve’s response also conveyed a willingness to revise their documentation: “As part of our ongoing commitment to providing clear and comprehensive developer resources, we continually review and enhance our documentation, and we will take your observations into account as part of that process.”

Huawei Highlights Financial Incentives for Location Data Sharing Before Showing Developers How to Opt Out

Huawei has claimed its Petal Ads SDK is embedded in more than 85,000 apps worldwide.

Huawei’s “Integrating the Petal Ads SDK into an Android App” guide begins with a recommendation that developers obtain location permissions to increase app revenue and an acknowledgement that location sharing will happen by default in apps with location permissions.

[Observed on “Integrating the Petal Ads SDK into an Android App,” 7/31/26]

A separate “Use of Location Data for Ads” page repeats that the Petal Ads SDK will include users’ location information in ad requests if an app has access to location information. Neither of those pages mention that developers can use the setRequestLocation method to disable the default collection of location information (this setting is referenced in the last section of the Ads SDK Compliance Guide). Huawei’s Ads SDK Privacy Statement states that “The SDK and its services will not store precise location information, and will only use it to determine the approximate device location.” However, the guide does not specify how Huawei defines approximate versus precise location data. 

[Observed on “Use of Location Data for Ads,” 7/31/26]

Location Data Sharing Can Happen Without Users’ Knowledge or Meaningful Consent 

In some cases, after an app itself obtains location permission, advertising SDKs can separately obtain and share users’ location information without their knowledge or meaningful consent. Neither app that EFF observed sharing precise location data with BidMachine (QR Scanner and GPS Speedometer) showed a notice or requested consent before doing so. Additionally, neither apps’ Google Play Store “Data safety” section includes location data under “This app may share these data types with third parties.” The lack of transparency and control that users have over their location on mobile apps is dangerous. QR Scanner and GPS Speedometer are just two examples of apps that quietly share users’ location data through advertising SDKs, but they have been downloaded more than 50 million and 10 million times, respectively. 

App-level location permissions alone cannot signal meaningful consent to location collection and sharing by third-party advertising SDKs.

Even if users’ were to grant these apps permission to obtain their location data, they would likely not expect their location data to be shared with third parties. Many users don’t know that granting location permissions to an app grants the same permissions to third-party SDKs embedded in the app, or that an app they're using contains code from outside companies. And many apps that request location permissions, like GPS Speedometer, require it for core functionality. App-level location permissions alone cannot signal meaningful consent to location collection and sharing by third-party advertising SDKs.

Location Privacy Issues Extend Beyond These Four SDKs

Our initial focus on four advertising SDKs does not mean that other SDKs adequately protect location data or that developers never choose to share location data when it’s not the default. Advertising SDKs not discussed in this report have been criticized and sued for allegations that they collect location data without valid user consent. 

The issues we’ve highlighted around privacy-invasive defaults, financial incentives, and unclear documentation extend beyond the specific SDKs we analyzed. Multiple studies have found that advertising SDKs often steer developers toward increased data collection through their design and documentation. A 2021 study found that popular advertising SDKs used dark patterns to nudge developers towards sharing more sensitive data. A 2024 study identified discrepancies between several SDKs’ documentation and their actual data collection practices. And a 2025 study concluded that developers have minimal influence over SDKs’ data transmission, often leaving them with the choice of accepting SDKs' invasive data collection or avoiding them entirely. 

Fighting Back Against AdTech Companies That Enable and Encourage Location Data Sharing 

EFF’s analysis shows that advertising SDKs don’t just allow developers to share location data–they often encourage it. Default settings, financial incentives, and unclear documentation can make sharing users’ location the easiest option for developers.

Users can take extra steps to defend their location privacy, but they shouldn’t have to. Developers, regulators, and legislators must act to stop apps from leaking users’ location to advertising companies and data brokers.

Developers

Developers should carefully evaluate all third-party SDKs they include in their apps and disable unnecessary data collection whenever possible. Regardless of advertising SDKs’ default settings, developers have a responsibility to protect their users’ location data. But protecting users’ privacy shouldn’t depend on developers reading the right piece of SDK documentation. Advertising SDKs should not make sharing personal data the default, especially for data as sensitive as a person’s location. 

Regulators

Regulators should continue to hold app developers accountable when they unlawfully share personal data and include libraries which subject users to privacy harms, as they have in the past. But they should also scrutinize the companies whose SDKs encourage these practices at scale. Otherwise, companies can continue to design SDKs that make invasive data sharing the default while shifting the responsibility and consequences to developers who include their tools. 

Legislators

The US is in dire need of a federal law to protect all Americans’ location privacy, one which doesn’t preempt stronger state privacy laws, and has a private right of action empowering individuals to sue those who violate their privacy. Countries across the globe should likewise enact legislation that protects their users’ location privacy. Everyone deserves privacy as a universal human right.

Legislators can address the root of the problem by banning online behavioral advertising. This would remove the primary incentive for companies to track and share your personal data. It would also prevent users' precise locations from being broadcast to data brokers through RTB auctions. 

Until then, developers should be wary of ad libraries that betray their users’ location privacy.

Notes on Methodology

We were interested in looking at network traffic for various Android ads SDKs that send precise location by default when granted location permissions. We chose Android for this investigation because of the relative openness of and our familiarity with analysis on the platform. We’ve used publicly available resources like Exodus Privacy and AppBrain to identify popular ads SDKs and the apps which include them.

In a lab setting, we set up a machine to view our own http(s) traffic using mitmproxy from our test device, and connect the test device to that machine in order to view our real-time traffic.  Where needed, we use the dynamic instrumentation toolkit Frida to ensure the traffic we generate can be analyzed.

We’ve included flows files in this post, which can be opened in mitmproxy to show the requests we’ve observed with location coordinates.

Attribution is preliminary, and so far it seems no real damage.

And it seems like this is a campaign that has targeted at least seven states. And, because this is where the US is right now, Trump doesn’t believe it’s Iran and that Minnesota…I guess…hacked itself.

“I think I blame it on Minnesota because they’re grossly incompetent,” Trump said. “I would blame it on Minnesota and the governor, the corrupt governor of Minnesota. They like to say, ‘Oh, it’s Iran.’ Iran should be so lucky. Iran’s got bigger problems than worrying about Minnesota.”...

Lithium-ion batteries are the leading choice in today’s electric vehicle and battery energy storage system industries, but they contain a number of critical minerals — including lithium, cobalt, nickel, and graphite — that are considered essential for economic and national security reasons, and therefore vulnerable to supply chain disruptions. As renewable energy, electrified infrastructure, and high-power digital technologies continue to grow, there is an increasing need for energy storage systems that are low-cost, resource-abundant, and capable of fast charging and discharging. 

That need, among other reasons, has motivated a group of researchers — based at MIT and led by Ju Li, the Carl Richard Soderberg Professor of Power Engineering in the departments of Nuclear Science and Engineering (NSE) and Materials Science and Engineering — to develop complementary energy storage solutions. 

The team is looking, in particular, at sodium-metal batteries, which offer several attractive features. Sodium is about 1,000 times more abundant than lithium and, pound for pound, about one-hundredth the cost. A key challenge, however, is that sodium metal is highly reactive, making it difficult for these batteries to achieve both long-term stability and fast cycling. 

A new paper in the journal Joule — written by 15 members of the MIT team and published online this week — shows how this dilemma can be addressed by finding the right electrolyte for this battery system.

Electrolytes behaving badly

An electrolyte is one of three main components of a battery, along with the negative electrode (the anode) and the positive electrode (the cathode). The electrolyte acts like the “blood” of the battery, allowing electrically charged ions to move between the two electrodes. “The electrolyte is supposed to just transmit those ions,” explains Li. “It’s supposed to be an ion conductor.” But unfortunately, most electrolytes get involved in unwanted chemical reactions with the electrodes, which can greatly undermine battery stability.

The consequences of these “side reactions” can be severe, says Weiyin Chen, a postdoc in NSE and one of four lead authors of the Joule paper. Insoluble compounds produced during the reactions can build up on the electrodes, creating a barrier that blocks ion transport and can eventually cause the battery to fail. 

Until recently, Chen says, no electrolyte used in sodium-metal batteries was fully stable against these unwanted reactions at both the anode and cathode, even though such stability is essential for rechargeable batteries to achieve a long cycle life. An initial breakthrough occurred in 2021, when the Li group and their collaborators identified a “sulfonamide” molecule — consisting of sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen atoms — that, when used as a solvent, “is magically stable at both electrodes in lithium batteries,” according to Li. This molecule is known as DMTMSA. 

Building on that discovery, Li and his colleagues set out to see if related molecules could improve sodium batteries. The goal was not only to maintain stability, but also to enable fast charging and discharging. If charging is too slow, it could take all night to recharge, and if discharging is too slow, the battery cannot deliver much power when needed.

How did the solvent cross the road?

Chen explains the idea with an analogy: Suppose you need to cross a street jam-packed with pedestrians, much like ions traveling from one electrode to another. “You can move more quickly through the crowd with a small backpack that is snug against your body, rather than dragging a bulky suitcase on wheels,” Chen says. 

A similar situation occurs in batteries: When sodium ions are surrounded by smaller solvents, they can move faster than when they are surrounded by larger, bulkier solvents. Faster ion transport enables more-rapid charging and discharging. The team’s goal, accordingly, was to identify solvent molecules that are small enough to improve ion transport while still maintaining electrolyte stability.

There is, however, a complicating factor — a trade-off to be addressed: Faster ion transport often comes at the expense of electrolyte stability. Many highly conductive electrolytes react more easily with the electrodes, shortening battery life. Fortunately for their plan, Li says, “reducing the size of solvents provides a new pathway to overcome this trade-off.” 

The question then becomes how to find a smaller solvent that has other desirable properties. The idea they adopted is to look for molecules that are “congeneric,” says Li, “meaning that they belong to a similar family and are molecularly similar.” In particular, they searched for molecules related to DMTMSA, hoping to find candidates that were smaller but could retain the stability that made DMTMSA so promising.

Chia-Wei Hsu, an MIT PhD student in materials science and engineering, created an AI-guided algorithm, which designed 100,000 candidate molecules on his computer within 24 hours. Hsu then narrowed down the pool to 200 candidates by applying a set of technical criteria — including similarity in shape to DMTMSA and comparable electronic properties. Twenty-seven representative candidates covering the full range of possibilities were selected for experimental tests. 

“We tested them all under the same conditions to make it a fair, head-to-head competition,” Chen says. A clear winner emerged, a solvent called DMFSA, which was both the smallest and the best.

Small is beautiful

This work, claims Jinhyuk Lee, an associate professor of materials engineering at McGill University who is not part of the study, “addresses one of the most persistent challenges in battery research: improving battery performance at high charging and discharging rates without sacrificing long-term stability. By carefully tailoring the size of solvent molecules, the authors demonstrate a new design strategy that could enable lower-cost, higher performance batteries.” 

The group is not done. A new search is underway to find an even better solvent. This time, the approach is similar, but DMFSA (rather than the larger DMTMSA molecule) serves as the starting point. Chen believes the new solvents they are uncovering could eventually lead to rechargeable sodium-metal batteries that combine low-cost, abundant materials with fast charging and high-power performance, opening the door to broader energy storage applications.

The overriding goal of this work, the authors emphasize, is not only to advance sodium batteries. It’s also to introduce a new approach to electrolyte design that uses solvent size and molecular similarity as the key guideposts. Viewing the research in this light, sodium-metal batteries serve as a model system for demonstrating a more general design principle.

“Because the concept is broadly applicable,” Lee comments, “its impact could extend well beyond sodium batteries and influence the design of a wide range of future energy storage technologies.”

This work was supported, in part, by a National Research Foundation of Korea grant funded by the government of Korea government, as well as U.S. National Science Foundation graduate research fellowship. The characterization equipment used in this project is partly from the MIT.nano Characterization Facilities. 

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