Transistors, the building blocks of modern electronics, are typically made of silicon. Because it’s a semiconductor, this material can control the flow of electricity in a circuit. But silicon has fundamental physical limits that restrict how compact and energy-efficient a transistor can be.

MIT researchers have now replaced silicon with a magnetic semiconductor, creating a magnetic transistor that could enable smaller, faster, and more energy-efficient circuits. The material’s magnetism strongly influences its electronic behavior, leading to more efficient control of the flow of electricity. 

The team used a novel magnetic material and an optimization process that reduces the material’s defects, which boosts the transistor’s performance.

The material’s unique magnetic properties also allow for transistors with built-in memory, which would simplify circuit design and unlock new applications for high-performance electronics.

“People have known about magnets for thousands of years, but there are very limited ways to incorporate magnetism into electronics. We have shown a new way to efficiently utilize magnetism that opens up a lot of possibilities for future applications and research,” says Chung-Tao Chou, an MIT graduate student in the departments of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science (EECS) and Physics, and co-lead author of a paper on this advance.

Chou is joined on the paper by co-lead author Eugene Park, a graduate student in the Department of Materials Science and Engineering (DMSE); Julian Klein, a DMSE research scientist; Josep Ingla-Aynes, a postdoc in the MIT Plasma Science and Fusion Center; Jagadeesh S. Moodera, a senior research scientist in the Department of Physics; and senior authors Frances Ross, TDK Professor in DMSE; and Luqiao Liu, an associate professor in EECS, and a member of the Research Laboratory of Electronics; as well as others at the University of Chemistry and Technology in Prague. The paper appears today in Physical Review Letters.

Overcoming the limits

In an electronic device, silicon semiconductor transistors act like tiny light switches that turn a circuit on and off, or amplify weak signals in a communication system. They do this using a small input voltage.

But a fundamental physical limit of silicon semiconductors prevents a transistor from operating below a certain voltage, which hinders its energy efficiency.

To make more efficient electronics, researchers have spent decades working toward magnetic transistors that utilize electron spin to control the flow of electricity. Electron spin is a fundamental property that enables electrons to behave like tiny magnets.

So far, scientists have mostly been limited to using certain magnetic materials. These lack the favorable electronic properties of semiconductors, constraining device performance.

“In this work, we combine magnetism and semiconductor physics to realize useful spintronic devices,” Liu says.

The researchers replace the silicon in the surface layer of a transistor with chromium sulfur bromide, a two-dimensional material that acts as a magnetic semiconductor.

Due to the material’s structure, researchers can switch between two magnetic states very cleanly. This makes it ideal for use in a transistor that smoothly switches between “on” and “off.”

“One of the biggest challenges we faced was finding the right material. We tried many other materials that didn’t work,” Chou says.

They discovered that changing these magnetic states modifies the material’s electronic properties, enabling low-energy operation. And unlike many other 2D materials, chromium sulfur bromide remains stable in air.

To make a transistor, the researchers pattern electrodes onto a silicon substrate, then carefully align and transfer the 2D material on top. They use tape to pick up a tiny piece of material, only a few tens of nanometers thick, and place it onto the substrate.

“A lot of researchers will use solvents or glue to do the transfer, but transistors require a very clean surface. We eliminate all those risks by simplifying this step,” Chou says.

Leveraging magnetism

This lack of contamination enables their device to outperform existing magnetic transistors. Most others can only create a weak magnetic effect, changing the flow of current by a few percent or less. Their new transistor can switch or amplify the electric current by a factor of 10.

They use an external magnetic field to change the magnetic state of the material, switching the transistor using significantly less energy than would usually be required.

The material also allows them to control the magnetic states with electric current. This is important because engineers cannot apply magnetic fields to individual transistors in an electronic device. They need to control each one electrically.

The material’s magnetic properties could also enable transistors with built-in memory, simplifying the design of logic or memory circuits.

A typical memory device has a magnetic cell to store information and a transistor to read it out. Their method can combine both into one magnetic transistor.

“Now, not only are transistors turning on and off, they are also remembering information. And because we can switch the transistor with greater magnitude, the signal is much stronger so we can read out the information faster, and in a much more reliable way,” Liu says.

Building on this demonstration, the researchers plan to further study the use of electrical current to control the device. They are also working to make their method scalable so they can fabricate arrays of transistors.

This research was supported, in part, by the Semiconductor Research Corporation, the U.S. Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), the U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF), the U.S. Department of Energy, the U.S. Army Research Office, and the Czech Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sports. The work was partially carried out at the MIT.nano facilities.

The country’s largest offshore wind farm started generating electricity Monday as another developer accepted nearly $1 billion to ditch two planned projects.

The administration on Monday cheered a deal to end two offshore wind projects. Democrats aren't happy but are staying the course on permitting.

The inspector general said the previous administration set appropriate controls when awarding grants for curbing local pollution.

The state has never approved grant money for its program to help residents upgrade their homes and protect against extreme weather.

Gov. Kathy Hochul once touted a carbon pricing program on a global stage but has been raising concerns about the potential costs.

From one-quarter to one-third of the Lower 48 states will be flirting with heat records for March, said a National Weather Service official.

Even before the Iran war, the EU’s rules to tackle methane, a potent greenhouse gas, had come under heavy criticism from the U.S.

The market for cat bonds has seen rapid growth in recent years as insurance firms look for ways to transfer mounting levels of risk from their books to the capital markets.

The changes, expected to take effect April 1 for solar panels and beginning next year for batteries, may complicate efforts to expand renewable energy to close vast electricity gaps across the continent.

Artificial intelligence holds promise for helping doctors diagnose patients and personalize treatment options. However, an international group of scientists led by MIT cautions that AI systems, as currently designed, carry the risk of steering doctors in the wrong direction because they may overconfidently make incorrect decisions.

One way to prevent these mistakes is to program AI systems to be more “humble,” according to the researchers. Such systems would reveal when they are not confident in their diagnoses or recommendations and would encourage users to gather additional information when the diagnosis is uncertain.

“We’re now using AI as an oracle, but we can use AI as a coach. We could use AI as a true co-pilot. That would not only increase our ability to retrieve information but increase our agency to be able to connect the dots,” says Leo Anthony Celi, a senior research scientist at MIT’s Institute for Medical Engineering and Science, a physician at Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, and an associate professor at Harvard Medical School.

Celi and his colleagues have created a framework that they say can guide AI developers in designing systems that display curiosity and humility. This new approach could allow doctors and AI systems to work as partners, the researchers say, and help prevent AI from exerting too much influence over doctors’ decisions.

Celi is the senior author of the study, which appears today in BMJ Health and Care Informatics. The paper’s lead author is Sebastián Andrés Cajas Ordoñez, a researcher at MIT Critical Data, a global consortium led by the Laboratory for Computational Physiology within the MIT Institute for Medical Engineering and Science.

Instilling human values

Overconfident AI systems can lead to errors in medical settings, according to the MIT team. Previous studies have found that ICU physicians defer to AI systems that they perceive as reliable even when their own intuition goes against the AI suggestion. Physicians and patients alike are more likely to accept incorrect AI recommendations when they are perceived as authoritative.

In place of systems that offer overconfident but potentially incorrect advice, health care facilities should have access to AI systems that work more collaboratively with clinicians, the researchers say.

“We are trying to include humans in these human-AI systems, so that we are facilitating humans to collectively reflect and reimagine, instead of having isolated AI agents that do everything. We want humans to become more creative through the usage of AI,” Cajas Ordoñez says.

To create such a system, the consortium designed a framework that includes several computational modules that can be incorporated into existing AI systems. The first of these modules requires an AI model to evaluate its own certainty when making diagnostic predictions. Developed by consortium members Janan Arslan and Kurt Benke of the University of Melbourne, the Epistemic Virtue Score acts as a self-awareness check, ensuring the system’s confidence is appropriately tempered by the inherent uncertainty and complexity of each clinical scenario.

With that self-awareness in place, the model can tailor its response to the situation. If the system detects that its confidence exceeds what the available evidence supports, it can pause and flag the mismatch, requesting specific tests or history that would resolve the uncertainty, or recommending specialist consultation. The goal is an AI that not only provides answers but also signals when those answers should be treated with caution.

“It’s like having a co-pilot that would tell you that you need to seek a fresh pair of eyes to be able to understand this complex patient better,” Celi says.

Celi and his colleagues have previously developed large-scale databases that can be used to train AI systems, including the Medical Information Mart for Intensive Care (MIMIC) database from Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center. His team is now working on implementing the new framework into AI systems based on MIMIC and introducing it to clinicians in the Beth Israel Lahey Health system.

This approach could also be implemented in AI systems that are used to analyze X-ray images or to determine the best treatment options for patients in the emergency room, among others, the researchers say.

Toward more inclusive AI

This study is part of a larger effort by Celi and his colleagues to create AI systems that are designed by and for the people who are ultimately going to be most impacted by these tools. Many AI models, such as MIMIC, are trained on publicly available data from the United States, which can lead to the introduction of biases toward a certain way of thinking about medical issues, and exclusion of others.

Bringing in more viewpoints is critical to overcoming these potential biases, says Celi, emphasizing that each member of the global consortium brings a distinct perspective to a broader, collective understanding.

Another problem with existing AI systems used for diagnostics is that they are usually trained on electronic health records, which weren’t originally intended for that purpose. This means that the data lack much of the context that would be useful in making diagnoses and treatment recommendations. Additionally, many patients never get included in those datasets because of lack of access, such as people who live in rural areas.

At data workshops hosted by MIT Critical Data, groups of data scientists, health care professionals, social scientists, patients, and others work together on designing new AI systems. Before beginning, everyone is prompted to think about whether the data they’re using captures all the drivers of whatever they aim to predict, ensuring they don’t inadvertently encode existing structural inequities into their models.

“We make them question the dataset. Are they confident about their training data and validation data? Do they think that there are patients that were excluded, unintentionally or intentionally, and how will that affect the model itself?” he says. “Of course, we cannot stop or even delay the development of AI, not just in health care, but in every sector. But, we must be more deliberate and thoughtful in how we do this.”

The research was funded by the Boston-Korea Innovative Research Project through the Korea Health Industry Development Institute.

Methane is a powerful greenhouse gas that is second only to carbon dioxide in driving up global temperatures. But it doesn’t linger in the atmosphere for long thanks to molecules called hydroxyl radicals, which are known as the “atmosphere’s detergent” for their ability to break down methane. As the planet warms, however, it’s unclear how the air-cleaning agents will respond.

MIT scientists are now shedding some light on this. The team has developed a new model to study different processes that control how levels of hydroxyl radical will shift with warming temperatures.

They find that the picture is complicated. As temperatures increase, so too will water vapor in the atmosphere, which will in turn boost the molecule’s concentrations. But rising temperatures will also increase “biogenic volatile organic compound emissions” — gases that are naturally released by some plants and trees. These natural emissions can reduce hydroxyl radical and dampen water vapor’s boosting effect.

Specifically, the team finds that if the planet’s average temperatures rise by 2 degrees Celsius, the accompanying rise in water vapor will increase hydroxyl radical levels by about 9 percent. But the corresponding increase in biogenic emissions would in turn bring down hydroxyl radical levels by 6 percent. The final accounting could mean a small boost, of about 3 percent, in the atmosphere’s ability to break down methane and other chemical compounds as the planet warms.

“Hydroxyl radicals are important in determining the lifetime of methane and other reactive greenhouse gases, as well as gases that affect public health, including ozone and certain other air pollutants,” says study author Qindan Zhu, who led the work as a postdoc in MIT’s Department of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences (EAPS).

“There’s a whole range of environmental reasons why we want to understand what’s going on with this molecule,” adds Arlene Fiore, the Peter H. Stone and Paola Malanotte Stone Professor in EAPS. “We want to make sure it’s around to chemically remove all these gases and pollutants.”

Fiore and Zhu’s new study appears today in the Journal of Advances in Modeling Earth Systems (JAMES). The study’s MIT co-authors include Jian Guan and Paolo Giani, along with Robert Pincus, Nicole Neumann, George Milly, and Clare Singer of Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory and the Columbia Climate School, and Brian Medeiros at the National Center for Atmospheric Research.

A natural neutralizer

The hydroxyl radical, known chemically as OH, is made up of one oxygen atom and one hydrogen atom, along with an unpaired electron. This configuration makes the molecule extremely reactive. Like a chemical vacuum cleaner, OH easily pulls an electron or hydrogen atom away from other molecules, breaking them down into weaker, more water-soluble forms. In this way, OH reduces a vast range of chemicals, including some air pollutants, pathogens, and ozone. And changes in OH are a powerful lever on methane.

“For methane, the reaction with OH is considered the most important loss pathway,” Zhu says. “About 90 percent of the methane that’s removed from the atmosphere is due to the reaction with OH.”

Indeed, it’s thanks to reactions with hydroxyl radical that methane can only stick around in the atmosphere for about a decade — far shorter than carbon dioxide, which can linger for 1,000 years or longer. But even as OH breaks down methane already in the atmosphere, more methane continues to accumulate. Rising methane concentrations, in addition to human-derived emissions of carbon dioxide, are driving global warming, and it’s unclear how OH’s methane-clearing power will keep up.

“The questions we’re exploring here are: What are the main processes that control OH concentrations? And how will OH respond to climate change?” Fiore says.

An aquaplanet’s air

For their study, the researchers developed a new model to simulate levels of OH in the atmosphere under a current global climate scenario, compared to a future warmer climate. Their model, dubbed “AquaChem,” is an expansion of a simplified model that is part of a suite of tools developed by the Community Earth System Model (CESM) project. The model that the team chose to build off is one that represents the Earth as a simplified “aquaplanet,” with an entirely ocean-covered surface.

Aquaplanet models allow scientists to study detailed interactions in the atmosphere in response to changes in surface temperatures, without having to also spend computing time and energy on simulating complex dynamics between the land, water, and polar ice caps.

To the aquaplanet model, Zhu added an atmospheric chemistry component that simulates detailed chemical reactions in the atmosphere consistent with the applied surface temperatures. The chemical reactions that she modeled represent those that are known to affect OH concentrations.

OH is primarily produced when ozone interacts with sunlight in the presence of water vapor. For instance, scientists have found that OH levels can vary depending certain anthropogenic and natural emissions, all of which Zhu incorporated separately and together into the AquaChem model in order to isolate the impact of each process on OH.

The emissions in particular include carbon monoxide, methane, nitrogen oxides, and volatile organic compounds (VOCs), some of which are emitted through human practices, and others that are given off by natural processes. One type of naturally-derived VOCs are “biogenic” emissions — gases, such as isoprene, that some plants and trees emit through tiny pores called stomata during transpiration.

Into the AquaChem model, Zhu plugged in data that were available for each type of emissions from the year 2000 — a year that is generally considered to represent the current climate in a simplified form. She set the aquaplanet’s sea surface temperatures to the zonal annual mean of that year, and found that the model accurately reproduced the major sensitivities of OH chemistry to the underlying chemical processing as simulated in a more complex chemistry-climate model.

Then, Zhu ran the model under a second, globally warming scenario. She set the planet’s sea surface temperatures to warm by 2 degrees Celsius (a warming that is likely to occur unless global anthropogenic carbon emissions are mitigated). The team looked at how this warming would affect the various types of emissions and chemical processes, and how these changes would ultimately affect levels of OH in the atmosphere.

In the end, they found the two biggest drivers of OH levels were rising water vapor and biogenic emissions. They found that global warming would increase the amount of water vapor to the atmosphere, which in turn would boost production of OH by 9 percent. However, this same degree of warming would also increase biogenic emissions such as isoprene, which reacts with and breaks down OH, bringing down its levels by 6 percent.

The team recognizes that there are many other factors that affect the response of isoprene emissions to surface warming. Rising CO2, not considered in this study, may dampen this temperature-driven response. Of all the factors that can shift OH levels under global warming, the researchers caution that biogenic emissions are the most uncertain, even though they appear to have a large influence. Going forward, the scientists plan to update AquaChem to continue studying how biogenic emissions, as well as other processes and climate scenarios, could sway OH concentrations.

“We know that changes in atmospheric OH, even of a few percent, can actually matter for interpreting how methane might accumulate in the atmosphere,” Zhu says. “Understanding future trends of OH will allow us to determine future trends of methane.”

This work was supported, in part, by Spark Climate Solutions and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 

The sense of support and community was palpable when Sojun Park, a postdoc at the MIT Center for International Studies (CIS), delivered a recent presentation on The Global Diffusion of AI Technologies and Its Political Drivers. The event, part of the CIS Global Research and Policy Seminar, filled the venue with audience members from across MIT. 

“My work is directly connected to what CIS faculty have previously done on international trade and security,” Park said afterwards. “If I hadn’t received a postdoctoral fellowship and come to MIT, I wouldn’t have been able to think through the security implications of my intellectual property research. I’ve been tremendously motivated by these scholars.”

Park’s time at CIS has been both grounding and transformative, offering him a scholarly home that has shaped his research and helped broaden his intellectual horizons.

Pursuing interdisciplinary research and connections 

Before pursuing a tenure-track position, Park set his sights on conducting research at MIT. When he came across a public posting about the CIS Postdoctoral Associate Program, he took a chance and applied.

“My own research is interdisciplinary, and I knew that I could really benefit from the interdisciplinary environment at MIT, and specifically at CIS, where faculty are coming not only from political science, but also affiliated with the Department of Economics and MIT Sloan [School of Management],” he says.

Park was thrilled to receive the paid fellowship, which offers an academic year at MIT and dedicated office space at CIS. At MIT, he is free to use his time toward his own research, and has found value in pursuing topics that are of interest to the CIS community — whether it’s AI or global governance. He’s published prolifically along the way, including two articles in the Review of International Organizations and the Review of International Political Economy.

He’s also continued to work on his forthcoming book, “From Privilege to Prosperity: Knowledge Diffusion and the Global Governance of Intellectual Property,” which examines how technologies can be transferred legitimately across borders. “By 'legitimately,' I am asking under what circumstances would firms volunteer to share their technologies? I’m interested in institutions and institutional environments that allow large businesses to share their technologies with smaller businesses based in the development world that may not possess the ability to come up with their own technologies,” he explains.

During the spring 2026 semester, he is collaborating with the center’s Undergraduate Fellows Program. This program enables postdocs to work on their research projects with MIT undergraduates. Park is working with two CIS undergraduate fellows to develop a new dataset examining international trade in green technologies. This opportunity reconnects Park to his early academic experiences in South Korea that set him on the path to MIT.

Path to MIT

“Students in South Korea are trained to be problem-solvers,” explains Park, who was born and raised in Seoul. The country’s rigorous college entrance exams reward those who can answer the most questions quickly and accurately in a limited amount of time.

While taking a test in high school, Park stumbled over a question that he couldn’t answer, regardless of how much time he spent concentrating on it. He handed in the exam, but took the problem home and spent hours puzzling over it — he just couldn’t let it go. “In hindsight, I see this as the moment I decided that I wanted to become a scholar,” Park says.

While majoring in international studies and economics (statistics) at Korea University, he had the opportunity to participate in a semester-long exchange program at the University of Texas at Austin. There, Park enrolled in a political science course on game theory that explored how individual state actors’ decisions influenced one another’s choices and outcomes in trade, conflict, and diplomacy. The instructor used the ongoing war between North and South Korea as a case study, demonstrating the unique circumstances for escalation or de-escalation depending upon how the key actors made choices along the way.

“I saw for the first time how quantitative methods could be applied to international relations and political economy,” Park says — and he knew that his next step was going to be graduate work in the United States. He began a joint MA and PhD program in political science at Princeton University the following year, supported by a Fulbright Fellowship.

Park’s 2025 dissertation examined the global governance of intellectual property rights — and it was timely. He began his PhD program in 2018, “the point at which the U.S. and China trade war had just begun.” During the pandemic, he was moved by the ongoing debates regarding vaccine inequality. “I realized then that intellectual property was at the center of these global economic challenges.” With little political science research on the topic, he “set out to create a systemic framework” to study it.

Simultaneously, he served as a teaching assistant in undergraduate courses in statistical analysis and realized that he deeply enjoyed the experience of teaching and interacting with students. It was a very different experience from his own college years. 

“In South Korea, it’s common for the learning environment to be one in which the professor just delivers lectures, but I found that in the United States’ higher education system, the classroom is truly interactive. I learned something from each of my students.” Soon, Park was certain that he not only wanted to build a career in academic research, but also a future that heavily incorporated teaching and mentoring students.

Before graduating, he spent a year at Georgetown University as a predoctoral fellow affiliated with the Mortara Center for International Studies. This experience enabled him to explore the policy implications of his research and engage with policymakers in Washington — skills he will draw on in his new position.

Lasting lessons from CIS

Park recently accepted a position as assistant professor at the National University of Singapore. Beginning fall 2026, he will be teaching graduate students affiliated with the school of public policy — most of whom will have career experience as practitioners in the public or private sectors. 

He’ll take many lessons from MIT to his new academic home, he says. “Based on what I learned in the United States, I’ll make the learning environment in the graduate courses I teach much more interactive and collaborative.”

At CIS, Mihaela Papa, director of research and principal research scientist, and Evan Lieberman, the center’s director and professor of political science, connected Park to associated faculty whose research interests were related with his own. “Meeting with all of these scholars whose research relates in some way to intellectual property rights made me think about how my own interests can expand to other topics,” Park explains. 

But the biggest takeaway of all is that he learned how to share his own research with scholars who study unfamiliar topics, to exchange ideas and discover commonality. “I’ll never stop using the communication skills that I got here at MIT," Park says.

Global navigation satellite systems (GNSS), which include GPS, are traditionally used for positioning, timing, and mapping information. In an open-access study published Feb. 27 in Geophysical Research Letters, MIT Haystack Observatory scientists report using existing GNSS satellites, in conjunction with 13 stations installed on the Ross Ice Shelf (RIS) in Antarctica, to measure atmospheric turbulence above the ice shelf that may have contributed to an unusual extensive surface melting in January 2016.

The RIS is a large, floating ice structure that fringes the western coast of Antarctica, buttressing the continental ice sheet. Normally, the RIS melts from underneath as warmer ocean water flows into its cavity underwater; in January 2016, warm, humid air caused an unusual melting event on the top side of the shelf. RIS stability is crucial to track, given that it regulates the amount of ice discharged into the ocean from Antarctica and thus significantly affects globally rising sea levels. 

Understanding atmospheric conditions above the RIS helps to explain its surface melting events, but it is challenging to monitor these in situ due to dangerous conditions and the remote location. 

Haystack scientists determined that a network of GNSS stations on the ice can be used to track atmospheric conditions above each station and across the network; water vapor in the lower atmosphere induces a delay in the GNSS signal that can be slightly different between stations, and changes over time. These spatial and temporal variations of water vapor allow researchers to track weather over the RIS and can be used to infer the strength (also called “rockiness”) of atmospheric turbulence.

During the unusual RIS surface melting event, the GNSS station data indicated turbulence at a level four times greater than usual. This novel application of the GNSS network systems to measure atmospheric conditions allows scientists to monitor distant, life-threatening locations remotely. 

“In January 2016, Antarctica experienced a significant widespread summer melting, driven by the warm air intrusion from the Southern Ocean. Our study showed that atmospheric turbulence may have helped mix the air mass and aggravated the surface melting,” says Haystack Research Scientist Dhiman Mondal. “We can use a GNSS network as an atmospheric turbulence sensor and monitor the health of the ice sheets where meteorological measurements are sparse.” 

MIT Haystack Observatory also recently developed and tested an instrument, the seismogeodetic ice penetrator, which will contribute to monitoring the atmospheric turbulence in Antarctica. Haystack scientists also plan to use this method of GNSS systems to monitor ice melt above the Greenland Ice Sheet. 

Pedro Elosegui, head of the Haystack geodesy department, says, “The colossal Antarctic ice shelves, such as the RIS, are (generally) thinning and retreating. They lose mass by calving icebergs — some rather spectacularly, by collapsing — and by basal melting due to the interaction of warm and salty ocean waters. We found that the RIS can also lose mass to surface melting caused by warm and humid air from the Ross Sea, which brought about enhanced atmospheric turbulence and may have further strengthened the melting.”

Since her first journalism fellowship covering energy and the environment at the NPR station in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, Madison Goldberg has been drawn to science communication and audio storytelling. Now, after reporting on topics from solar storms to sewer systems to cryptography, she’s bringing her passions to MIT as the new host of the Institute’s climate change podcast.

Launched in 2019 as TILclimate, the show began its eighth season this year with a new name: Ask MIT Climate. But the podcast’s mission remains the same: teaming up with scientists and subject matter experts to bring listeners clear, accessible information on climate change topics in 15 minutes or less.

In this interview, Goldberg talks about her path to science communication, the ideas she thinks it’s important for climate communicators to convey, and what makes MIT an exciting place to share knowledge with the world.

Q: Did you always know that you wanted to be a science communicator? 

A: I didn’t! My first love in science was astronomy. I grew up looking at the stars a lot, and I was very lucky to do an internship in high school at UC Santa Cruz with a professor in their astronomy department. Space kind of puts everything in the biggest possible perspective, and for me, that’s a very calming thing.

And then in college, I wanted to do something closer to home, so to speak. I found that Earth science was very exciting to learn about, because pretty much all the sciences are somehow involved. You know, you’ve got chemistry, biology, physics ... everything all rolled into one. Also, I still got to tap into a lot of what I loved about astronomy, in terms of exploring deep time and big scales. And I was very motivated by a lot of the problems in Earth and climate science, because they tie so closely to people’s lives.

I expected to continue with research, but I discovered that what was especially compelling to me was learning about this stuff and then talking to people about it. And in my senior year of college I learned that science communication, and science journalism, was a field that you could be in. 

I took a science podcasting course that year — which I still can’t believe even existed — and I got my first taste of interviewing people and working in audio, which was just incredible. I had loved podcasts for so long, and so the medium felt really familiar.

Q: What is important for science communicators to convey about climate change?

A: One of the ideas that I try to always keep in mind, and that I think is really important to convey, is that climate change affects every single aspect of our lives. And we need to communicate about it accordingly.

I think it’s crucial to consider the ways climate change intertwines with all these other realms of people’s experiences; it affects where we live, it affects what we eat, it affects the economy, it affects our health. Approaching it in isolation doesn’t seem to be the most productive framework. As communicators, we have a responsibility to listen and learn and talk about all these many and varied ways that climate change shows up in people’s lives.

This idea of things intertwining also reminds me of a really central theme in Ask MIT Climate: that working towards climate solutions not only allows us to avoid the worst impacts of climate change, but it can also help make people’s lives better in other ways. And we get to think expansively about the future we want to build.

Q: What makes MIT an exciting place to be engaged in climate communication?

A: The folks that I've talked to at MIT are just so kind and generous with their time. And these people are so busy! They have so much on their plates, and yet, somehow, even when I have a million follow-up questions, extremely prominent researchers will hop on a Zoom or exchange emails to answer them. I feel so lucky to be part of this community.

Related to what I mentioned earlier, I also appreciate the interdisciplinary climate work that happens at MIT. Tackling climate change is a generational challenge, and it requires inputs from all kinds of fields. And at MIT we have, for example, the Climate Project, the Climate Policy Center, the Center for Sustainability Science and Strategy, the Living Climate Futures Lab — all of these ways to approach the issue and bring folks into the conversation who have different expertise, experiences, and perspectives. I think it’s really special to be at MIT, to see that happen in real-time, and to see students, faculty, and staff working to bridge across subject matter boundaries.

Above all, I’ve been shown such generosity, and I’m so grateful. I feel like I can never express enough gratitude for the people inside and outside of MIT who have spoken to me about their work and about their lives. All I can hope to do is to communicate that information faithfully. Because I think there’s a huge number of people who are curious about climate change and what we can do about it, and who want to learn.

Imagine a world where you could change the designs you see on bags, shirts, and walls whenever you want. Typical clothes would become customizable fashion pieces, while your humble abode could turn into a smart home. That’s the vision of scientists like MIT electrical engineering and computer science PhD student Yunyi Zhu ’20, MEng ’21: technology that can “reprogram” the appearance of personal accessories, home decor, and office items. 

At MIT’s Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (CSAIL), she’s created clever hardware that can add, say, artwork to a sweater, then swap in a new illustration later. To do this, she coats items with an invisible ink called photochromic dye, which transforms into different colors when exposed to intense light. Her colleagues previously built a device called “PhotoChromeleon” that used a projector to activate this ink, but the system wasn’t portable, so Zhu built the LED-based tool “PortaChrome” to reprogram lower-resolution imagery on the go.

Zhu and her team now have the best of both worlds: a portable device called “ChromoLCD” that programs clear pictures onto T-shirts, tables, and whiteboards. It looks like a small printer on the outside, but inside, ChromoLCD combines the sharpness of liquid-crystal displays (LCDs) with the precision lighting of LEDs. The collective powers of these lights help users stamp designs onto flat surfaces (like walls) and soft ones (like clothes) after they’ve been coated with photochromic dye.

ChromoLCD can embed a digital rose onto a hoodie, for example. Once you’ve painted photochromic ink onto the surface you’d like to redesign, you upload your picture to the device via Bluetooth or USB port. Users can select and preview their designs from ChromoLCD’s display menu, then stamp the device onto their item. Within about 15 minutes, you’ll have a personalized piece, and if you’d like to change it, you can program a new design onto your object.

“We see ChromoLCD as a bridge between consumers and photochromic dyes,” says Zhu, who is also co-lead author on a paper presenting this work. “It’s basically a stamp, and it’s very easy to use. There are no alignment requirements, no 3D object texture creation. You just upload the image you’d like to put on your bag, place it on there, and then you’d have a personalized accessory.”

ChromoLCD showed it could add a personalized touch to accessories such as a handbag by stamping on colorful drawings of things like fish and flowers. It also embedded an augmented reality (AR) tag (much like a QR code) on a tiled kitchen counter, which linked to a cooking tutorial a user could watch while preparing a meal. The tool even reprogrammed a whiteboard to display high-resolution reference images, and could potentially turn any whiteboard into an interactive canvas that blends digital visuals with physical sketching.

Welcome to the light show

At its core, ChromoLCD is a tower of power. Its display screen sits atop a white shell, which houses a computer chip, a backlight made up of bright ultraviolet (UV) and red, green, and blue (RGB) LEDs, and an LCD panel. In other words, while ChromoLCD works its magic to customize an object, a light show takes place behind the scenes.

The system first produces a black-and-white video that outlines the brightness of particular pixels in the image you select. For example, a picture of a parrot will have some areas that are darker than others, such as the shadows cast under its wing. Then, a UV light darkens (or saturates) the dye on your object, followed by the RGB lights that brighten it up and color in each pixel. It’s kind of like when you open the shades in the morning — what starts as a blast of bright light soon becomes a more colorful visual. These lights are produced at precise frequencies that the LCD maps onto your target object.

Zhu and her colleagues note that these components are fairly easy to purchase, in case you want to make your own ChromoLCD at home. Recreating ChromoLCD could help you turn often-overlooked items into interactive displays that you can modify as you please. “A wall in your office can show your family’s pictures when you miss them, or perhaps a doormat can show a customized greeting for each of your guests,” says Zhu. “It’s sort of like turning the world into your canvas.”

What next?

Combined with PortaChrome and PhotoChromeleon, CSAIL researchers have developed systems that help us digitize our surroundings. The next step for them is to find a way to help with the creative process of what to put there. Currently, you still need to upload a picture or even create a texture image for a 3D object. With the recent advancements we’ve seen from AI in texture generation, though, users could make requests without as much effort. By simply turning on your phone’s camera (or wearing an AR helmet) and pointing it at a particular object, you could ask your generative system to “turn a cup into a medieval-style tankard.” Voilà: you’d have programmed drinkware.

In the meantime, Zhu and her colleagues are bringing photochromic material to larger surfaces by developing a reprogrammer in the shape of a wall-roller. The machine works much like painting a wall, allowing you to place larger designs onto a surface. CSAIL researchers are also exploring swiping and ironing motions, and even implementing their current technology into robots to help them communicate with humans and other machines. The machines would be able to essentially write what they’re doing onto a surface — for example, a Roomba vacuum could tell its robotic counterparts that it cleaned specific areas of a large floor by stamping a clearly displayed, high-resolution message on the ground.

Narges Pourjafarian, a postdoc at Northeastern University who wasn’t involved in the paper, says that ChromoLCD is more than a resolution upgrade over prior MIT projects. “It reframes monochromatic LCD panels as wavelength-selective fabrication tools, rather than merely display endpoints. This approach expands how we think about reprogrammable surface appearance, enabling high-resolution, reconfigurable graphics to be embedded directly into physical environments without the need for stationary projection enclosures. It opens a path toward compact, portable augmentation of garments, countertops, and shared surfaces.”

Zhu wrote the paper with six CSAIL affiliates. They are: MIT undergraduates Qingyuan Li (who is a co-lead author), Katherine Yan, Alex Luchianov, and Eden Hen; Harvard University graduate student and former visiting researcher Emily Guan; and MIT Associate Professor Stefanie Mueller, who is a CSAIL principal investigator and senior author on the work. The researchers will present their paper at the ACM International Conference on Tangible, Embedded, and Embodied Interaction.

From enhancing international business logistics to freeing up more hospital beds to helping farmers, MIT Professor Dimitris Bertsimas SM ’87, PhD ’88 summarized how his work in operations research has helped drive real-world improvements, while delivering the 54th annual James R. Killian Faculty Achievement Award Lecture at MIT on Thursday, March 19.

Bertsimas also described how artificial intelligence is now being used in some of his scholarly projects and as a tool in MIT Open Learning efforts, which he currently directs — another facet of a highly productive and lauded career over four decades at the Institute. The Killian Award is the highest prize MIT gives its faculty.

“I have tried to improve the human condition,” Bertsimas said, summarizing the breadth of his work and the many applications to everyday living that he has found for it.

At MIT, Bertsimas is the vice provost for open learning, associate dean for online education and artificial intelligence, Boeing Leaders for Global Operations Professor of Management, and professor of operations research in the MIT Sloan School of Management. He also served as the inaugural faculty director of the master of business analytics program at MIT Sloan, and has held the position of associate dean of business analytics.

Bertsimas’ remarks encompassed both his past insights and his ongoing studies, as well as his current efforts to add AI to his research. Describing the concept of “robust optimization,” a highly influential approach that Bertsimas helped develop in the early 2000s, he explained how it has enabled, for instance, more reliable shipping through the Panama Canal. Other approaches to optimization aimed at getting more vessels through the canal every day — up to 48 — but would encounter significant problems at times. Bertsimas’ approach identified that 45 vessels a day was better — a slightly lower number, but one that “was always feasible,” he noted.

Over time, Bertsimas’ work has helped structure all kinds of solutions in business logistics; it has even been used for the allocation of school buses in Boston.

More recently, as Bertsimas explained in the lecture, he and his collaborators have been working with Hartford HealthCare in Connecticut on a wide range of issues, and are increasingly incorporating AI into the development of tools for diagnostics, among other things. On the optimization front, their research has suggested ways to reduce the average stay of a hospital patient, from 5.38 days to 4.93 days. In the main Hartford hospital they have studied, given the number of existing beds, that reduction has enabled more than 5,000 additional patient stays per year.

“It’s a very different ballgame,” Bertsimas said.

Bertsimas delivered his lecture, titled “Algorithms for Life: AI and Operations Research Transforming Healthcare, Education, and Agriculture,” to an audience of over 300 MIT community members in Huntington Hall (Room 10-250) on campus.

The award was established in 1971 to honor James Killian, whose distinguished career included serving as MIT’s 10th president, from 1948 to 1959, and subsequently as chair of the MIT Corporation, from 1959 to 1971.

“Professor Bertsimas’ scholarly contributions are both extensive and groundbreaking,” said Roger Levy, chair of the MIT faculty and a professor in the Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, while making introductory remarks. “He’s one of the rare individuals who has made significant contributions to both intellectual threads in the field of operations research: one, optimization — combinatorial, linear, and nonlinear — and number two, stochastic processes.”

Indeed, Bertsimas’ work has helped develop both better tools for studying and conducting operations, while also having a wide range of applications. As Bertsimas noted in his lecture, the deaths of both of his parents in 2009 helped propel him to start looking at extensively at ways operations research could help health care.

Bertsimas received his BS in electrical engineering and computer science from the National Technical University of Athens in Greece. Moving to MIT for his graduate work, he then earned his MS in operations research and his PhD in applied mathematics and operations research. Bertsimas joined the MIT faculty after receiving his doctorate, and has remained at the Institute ever since.

Bertsimas is also known as an energetic teacher who has been the principal advisor to a remarkable number of PhD students — 106 and counting, at this point.

“It is far and away my favorite activity, to supervise my doctoral students,” Bertsimas said. “It is a privilege, in my opinion, to work with exceptional young people like the ones we have at MIT, in ability and character and aspiration. They actually make me a better scientist, and a better person.”

“MIT is part of my identity,” Bertsimas quipped while noting that he is the only faculty member on campus who has those three letters, in order, in his first name.

In the latter part of the lecture, Bertsimas highlighted work he has been doing as vice provost of open learning at MIT. He has personally developed an large online course based on his own material, “The Analytics Edge.” In his current role, Bertsimas said, he now aspires for MIT to reach a billion learners with online courses, part of his effort to “democratize access to education.”

Bertsimas also demonstrated for the audience some AI tools he and his colleagues are working to bring to online education, including ways of condensing material, and the translation of online material into other languages.

It is just one more chapter in a long and broad-ranging career dedicated to grasping phenomena and developing tools to help us navigate it.

Or as Berstimas noted while summarizing his scholarship at one point in the lecture, “I try to increase the human understanding of how the world works.” 

It’s an impressive feat, over a decade after the box was released:

Since reset glitching wasn’t possible, Gaasedelen thought some voltage glitching could do the trick. So, instead of tinkering with the system rest pin(s) the hacker targeted the momentary collapse of the CPU voltage rail. This was quite a feat, as Gaasedelen couldn’t ‘see’ into the Xbox One, so had to develop new hardware introspection tools.

Eventually, the Bliss exploit was formulated, where two precise voltage glitches were made to land in succession. One skipped the loop where the ...

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