Transistors, the building blocks of modern electronics, are typically made of silicon. Because it’s a semiconductor, this material can control the flow of electricity in a circuit. But silicon has fundamental physical limits that restrict how compact and energy-efficient a transistor can be.

MIT researchers have now replaced silicon with a magnetic semiconductor, creating a magnetic transistor that could enable smaller, faster, and more energy-efficient circuits. The material’s magnetism strongly influences its electronic behavior, leading to more efficient control of the flow of electricity. 

The team used a novel magnetic material and an optimization process that reduces the material’s defects, which boosts the transistor’s performance.

The material’s unique magnetic properties also allow for transistors with built-in memory, which would simplify circuit design and unlock new applications for high-performance electronics.

“People have known about magnets for thousands of years, but there are very limited ways to incorporate magnetism into electronics. We have shown a new way to efficiently utilize magnetism that opens up a lot of possibilities for future applications and research,” says Chung-Tao Chou, an MIT graduate student in the departments of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science (EECS) and Physics, and co-lead author of a paper on this advance.

Chou is joined on the paper by co-lead author Eugene Park, a graduate student in the Department of Materials Science and Engineering (DMSE); Julian Klein, a DMSE research scientist; Josep Ingla-Aynes, a postdoc in the MIT Plasma Science and Fusion Center; Jagadeesh S. Moodera, a senior research scientist in the Department of Physics; and senior authors Frances Ross, TDK Professor in DMSE; and Luqiao Liu, an associate professor in EECS, and a member of the Research Laboratory of Electronics; as well as others at the University of Chemistry and Technology in Prague. The paper appears today in Physical Review Letters.

Overcoming the limits

In an electronic device, silicon semiconductor transistors act like tiny light switches that turn a circuit on and off, or amplify weak signals in a communication system. They do this using a small input voltage.

But a fundamental physical limit of silicon semiconductors prevents a transistor from operating below a certain voltage, which hinders its energy efficiency.

To make more efficient electronics, researchers have spent decades working toward magnetic transistors that utilize electron spin to control the flow of electricity. Electron spin is a fundamental property that enables electrons to behave like tiny magnets.

So far, scientists have mostly been limited to using certain magnetic materials. These lack the favorable electronic properties of semiconductors, constraining device performance.

“In this work, we combine magnetism and semiconductor physics to realize useful spintronic devices,” Liu says.

The researchers replace the silicon in the surface layer of a transistor with chromium sulfur bromide, a two-dimensional material that acts as a magnetic semiconductor.

Due to the material’s structure, researchers can switch between two magnetic states very cleanly. This makes it ideal for use in a transistor that smoothly switches between “on” and “off.”

“One of the biggest challenges we faced was finding the right material. We tried many other materials that didn’t work,” Chou says.

They discovered that changing these magnetic states modifies the material’s electronic properties, enabling low-energy operation. And unlike many other 2D materials, chromium sulfur bromide remains stable in air.

To make a transistor, the researchers pattern electrodes onto a silicon substrate, then carefully align and transfer the 2D material on top. They use tape to pick up a tiny piece of material, only a few tens of nanometers thick, and place it onto the substrate.

“A lot of researchers will use solvents or glue to do the transfer, but transistors require a very clean surface. We eliminate all those risks by simplifying this step,” Chou says.

Leveraging magnetism

This lack of contamination enables their device to outperform existing magnetic transistors. Most others can only create a weak magnetic effect, changing the flow of current by a few percent or less. Their new transistor can switch or amplify the electric current by a factor of 10.

They use an external magnetic field to change the magnetic state of the material, switching the transistor using significantly less energy than would usually be required.

The material also allows them to control the magnetic states with electric current. This is important because engineers cannot apply magnetic fields to individual transistors in an electronic device. They need to control each one electrically.

The material’s magnetic properties could also enable transistors with built-in memory, simplifying the design of logic or memory circuits.

A typical memory device has a magnetic cell to store information and a transistor to read it out. Their method can combine both into one magnetic transistor.

“Now, not only are transistors turning on and off, they are also remembering information. And because we can switch the transistor with greater magnitude, the signal is much stronger so we can read out the information faster, and in a much more reliable way,” Liu says.

Building on this demonstration, the researchers plan to further study the use of electrical current to control the device. They are also working to make their method scalable so they can fabricate arrays of transistors.

This research was supported, in part, by the Semiconductor Research Corporation, the U.S. Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), the U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF), the U.S. Department of Energy, the U.S. Army Research Office, and the Czech Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sports. The work was partially carried out at the MIT.nano facilities.

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Nature Climate Change, Published online: 18 June 2026; doi:10.1038/s41558-026-02669-y

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The ability to access publicly available information using automated tools is a central value and benefit of a free and open internet. Automated access—often called crawling or scraping—powers important, useful tools for locating, preserving, and analyzing online information. For example, crawling and scraping helps journalists, researchers, and watchdog organizations report the news, find security flaws, and investigate discrimination. Crawling the web allows non-profits like the Internet Archive to preserve historical copies of websites. Tools for automated comparison shopping allow consumers to find the best deals on items they want to buy. And so on.

Yet the open internet access is increasingly under threat from publishers and Big Tech companies alike. Fearing lost advertising and licensing revenues, website operators increasingly claim that they need to lock down their sites from bots that crawl public web content to train or operate AI models. Some companies are even trying to embed their business models into internet standards by changing Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) technical standards that shape much of the internet.

Many of their economic anxieties are understandable. AI bots can strain websites’ infrastructure, in some cases, degrading site performance or taking them offline altogether. Upgrading systems costs money that some sites may not have. And AI is likely to disrupt the business models many publishers adopted in response to the rise of the internet, if users rely on AI overviews instead of visiting source websites.

However reasonable these fears may be, the answer is not to change the IETF standards from neutral protocols that encourage openness to restrictive requirements designed to monetize internet access.

The worst of these proposed standards would give websites far greater ability to automatically block legitimate, lawful scraping and crawling. For example, the AI Preferences working group is working on proposals to give publishers a way to express “preference signals” against crawling web data for AI-related purposes, including to train models, generate outputs, and help users search the web. These preference signals would be expressed through robots.txt and could potentially become legally binding in some jurisdictions.

Another working group, called Web Bot Auth, is pursuing efforts to protect sites from overly-aggressive bots that strain website resources—a positive goal that could meaningfully improve the internet in the AI era. But Web Bot Auth is simultaneously pursuing a much more dangerous path as well: standards changes that would enable sites to cryptographically identify bots so that they can more easily block anyone they wish—not just “bad” actors, but competitors, dissidents, or anyone who hasn’t paid for the right to access sites using automated tools. If sites restrict crawling to a preapproved list of cryptographically authenticated bots, they could require licensing payments from those wishing to crawl their sites. This would close off the open web to researchers, archivists, and startups without the ability to pay for automated access.  

Websites may have legitimate reasons to worry about AI’s impacts on their traffic and advertising revenue, but those reasons must be weighed against the benefits of the open web. These proposals would effectively give website operators veto power over a wide range of important uses—from the investigations and archival works described above to accessibility tools for people with disabilities, to research efforts aimed at holding governments accountable.

That is why we are fighting back against these threats to open access. EFF and our allies in the open internet community have successfully resisted some of the most dangerous IETF proposals thus far—and won’t stop working to protect the open web from efforts to manipulate internet standards to undermine the right to freely access the internet in any legal way, including with automated tools.

The NO FAKES Act is supposed to target harmful AI-generated impersonations. But in reality, it will make it easier to suppress commentary, satire, and other lawful speech. That's why EFF has signed a letter urging the Senate Judiciary Committee not to advance the bill in its current form.

Take action

Tell Congress to Say No to NO FAKES

In the letter, EFF joins a coalition of civil society groups in pointing out that the bill would import many of the worst features of the DMCA notice-and-takedown system into an even broader range of online expression. Faced with a “heckler’s veto” over legal speech, platforms will have incentives to remove content first and ask questions later. 

The bill offers no protection for a platform’s judgment about an often difficult question—whether a particular piece of content is satire, parody, commentary, or news. Any platform that guesses wrong faces penalties of up to $750,000 per work. 

NO FAKES could also undermine the rights of the people it is supposed to protect. The new federal “likeness” right could be licensed or transferred to others, so individuals will lose control over the use of their own face and voice. That’s not theoretical—workers in the entertainment industry are routinely asked to sign broad contracts about the future use of their likenesses.

As the letter notes: 

A background actor who signs a release on set or an ordinary person who clicks through a platform's terms of service could end up with the right to their own face and voice in someone else's hands, for years, with federal enforcement behind it. 

EFF and the other signatories urge Congress to examine existing legal remedies and pursue narrowly tailored solutions to genuine harms. The last thing we need is a sweeping new intellectual property right that threatens free expression. 

In addition to EFF, the letter is signed by the Center for Democracy & Technology, the American Civil Liberties Union, Fight for the Future, Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression, the Organization for Transformative Works, Public Knowledge, the R Street Institute, The Future of Free Speech, and the Woodhull Freedom Foundation. Read the full letter here. 

Take action

Tell Congress to Say No to NO FAKES

From the icy expanse of the South Pole, John Della Costa, a researcher on the Background Imaging of Cosmic Extragalactic Polarization (BICEP) project, watches STS.042/8.225 (Einstein, Oppenheimer, Feynman: Physics in the 20th Century), a free online class from MIT Open Learning’s OpenCourseWare, as part of a weekly “Fysics Fridays” series he started with his team.

MIT Professor David Kaiser, who teaches the course, often receives thoughtful notes from remote learners, but says an email from Della Costa stood out.

“Hearing that John and his team are spending a part of their time with this course was just the best message to receive,” says Kaiser.

The BICEP collaboration uses a series of radio telescopes at the South Pole to study the cosmic microwave background — the oldest light, emitted about 380,000 years after the start of the universe. The team is looking for signs of primordial gravitational waves, which would help to support MIT Professor Alan Guth’s theory of cosmic inflation that explains the rapid early expansion of the universe.

“Inflation is really important in making sense of our observations of our universe,” says Della Costa. “We have yet to discover the evidence for inflation that definitively proves that it did happen, and BICEP’s main role here at the South Pole is to discover gravitational waves from the very early universe.”

Kaiser co-directs a research group on early-universe cosmology with Guth. He says he has colleagues who have worked as Antarctica winter-overs, and can appreciate the immense challenge of this work.

“It’s very exciting to see this important research flourishing,” says Kaiser. “It takes enormous effort and dedication.” 

Bringing Open Learning to the South Pole

Della Costa first discovered MIT OpenCourseWare, part of MIT Open Learning, as a graduate student at San Diego State University. At the time, the Covid-19 pandemic had altered his schedule and created more downtime to pursue additional independent learning. He was taking a nuclear physics course as part of his graduate program in astrophysics, and wanted to learn much more about the topic. A little bit of online research led to his discovery of class 22.01 (Introduction to Nuclear Engineering and Ionizing Radiation), taught by Professor Michael Short.

“I found the course so interesting, and I’ve been exploring OpenCourseWare ever since then,” says Della Costa.

Preparing to spend an entire year at the South Pole (from November 2025 to December 2026), he realized he would need a productive way to occupy his downtime and stay entertained while isolated from much of the world.

“The station is completely isolated. After a certain point, no planes can fly in because it’s too cold,” says Della Costa. “The station closed on February 14, and it will reopen at the end of October or early November, depending on the weather.”

Because internet access is so limited at the South Pole, he downloaded several courses ahead of time, including: STS.042/8.225, 8.02 (Physics II: Electricity and Magnetism), 8.03 (Physics III: Vibrations and Waves), and Guth’s course, 8.286 (The Early Universe).

Like Della Costa’s discovery of OpenCourseWare, STS.042/8.225 was rooted in the disruptive days of the Covid-19 pandemic. Kaiser had taught the course in its traditional, in-person format many times, until fall 2020, when the courses needed to be taught entirely remotely. He made slides and taught the course via Zoom — for synchronous and asynchronous learning — to approximately 100 students located throughout the world. The materials were initially posted on the course site. The online version was later refined and expanded, launching on OpenCourseWare in August 2022. Unlike many physics offerings, this course includes background readings by physicists, as well as historians, philosophers, and sociologists.

“In this course, we get to talk about some really amazing ideas from modern physics,” says Kaiser. “We start in the middle of the 19th century, still in an era of what we would now call classical physics, and we rapidly go through things like relativity, quantum theory, nuclear physics, and particle physics. We end up with some of my favorite material about cosmology and the Big Bang — the kinds of things that John and his team are actively working on right now from their perch at the South Pole.”

Building community and learning together

Beyond finding ways to stay occupied during downtime from his research, Della Costa realized the importance of engaging the 45-person community at the South Pole. He describes it as a tight-knit group that needs to work together and look out for one another, especially given the extreme isolation, cold, and darkness, which can take a serious toll on mental health during the winter months.

“It’s very important to have community activities here,” says Della Costa, who thought of the idea to launch the “Fysics Fridays” series a couple of months ago. 

The group gathers to watch lectures and documentaries about physics every Friday. The series kicked off with a documentary about atomic bombs, drawing strong interest from the very beginning. 

Della Costa realized that STS.042/8.225 would be an ideal offering for Fysics Fridays.

“I thought this would be a perfect lecture series for us to watch, because it’s fairly introductory,” says Della Costa. “Not everyone here is a physicist, actually. It’s widely accessible, but still meaty, and worth people’s time to watch.”

Team members have been very interested in watching the course, and they’ve also started doing experiments before watching the lectures. Della Costa says that they’ve done the double-slit experiment and plan to also make a cloud chamber to see cosmic rays going through it.

Now that Della Costa and Kaiser are in contact, Kaiser has made plans to provide a special Zoom colloquium for the community at the South Pole.

“This use of the course is especially inspiring,” says Kaiser. “It really speaks to the excellence and far reach of OpenCourseWare and Open Learning.”

On 14 April, the Trump administration quietly acknowledged the widespread use of AI to automate government processes. The office of management and budget (OMB) disclosed a staggering 3,611 active or planned use cases for AI across the federal government. The list has ballooned by 70% from the one published in the final year of the Biden administration, and includes many disturbing-seeming plans to hand over sensitive governmental functions to AI.

Scanning this list, many readers may find many causes for alarm. It represents a transfer of decision processes from human to machine on a massive scale over matters of individual freedom, public health and well-being, nuclear reactor safety and more...

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